The Impact of Psychological Interventions on the Performance of Athletes: A Literature Review based Study

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This study investigates and discusses psychological interventions and skills used by professional athletes today. It examined the historical and current research on the function of imagery, pre-performance routines, goal-setting, and self-talk in athletic performance. This study examines the literature regarding its ability to improve overall athletic performance.

Therefore, the primary goal of the paper was to review academic research on the four psychological skills and interventions in light of how they affected overall athletic performance in a competitive sport. The research knowledge was then applied to a case study of a recovering athlete who wanted to improve their performance after returning from injury.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction
2. Chapter 1: Literature Review
3. Self-talk
4. Imagery
5. Goal-setting
6. Pre-performance routines
7. Chapter 2: Methodology
8. Conclusion
9. Recommendations
10. References

INTRODUCTION

Participating in sports can be stressful for athletes, especially in competitive ones. Sports psychologists work to help athletes perform at their very best under difficult and less-than-ideal circumstances. Athletes performing at their peak capacity can give 100% of their effort anytime. We view functional behaviour in this setting as necessary but insufficient for optimal performance. Functional athletic behaviour (F.A.B.) is distinguished by the high quality of actions and movements and attentional concentration on valuable distal goals (such as “the ball” or “being a fair sportsman”) (Röthlin, 2016).

This review examines the field of sport psychology and how the proper usage and application of the literature within this broad field can lead to better performance. In particular, it concentrates on psychological and emotional qualities such as drive, self-assurance, and arousal in contrast to anxiety. Some athletes might struggle with motivation issues or be stimulated by the uncertain atmosphere, lack of confidence, and nervousness. In contrast, others might find the same circumstances stimulating and flourishing in that setting. The paper that follows tackles these problems using crucial sport psychology concepts. The fundamental idea is that psychological and emotional aspects can be effectively learned by psychological intervention and changed and can impact athletic performance.

The dissertation plan focuses on the athlete rather than the coach or the parent within their environment. The term ‘athlete’ is defined by the American Heart Association as ‘one who participates in an organised team or individual sports that require regular competition against others as a core component and places a high value on excellence and achievement, requiring some form of systematic training (usually intense)’ (Maron and Zipes, 2005). The literature review focuses on a generic approach rather than a single athlete on the role of psychological intervention. The methodology in dissertation then concentrates on one athlete and tracks their progress from where they are now to where they want to be, using psychological techniques to help along the way. To avoid doubt, the paper concentrates on adults rather than children in competitive sports.

The paper focuses on the effectiveness of psychological skills training (PST) interventions on the performance of athletes. The PST strategy is an example of positive psychological interventions which consists of four components- self-talk, imagery, goal-setting, and pre-performance routines. Individually, they all have a role in improving athletic performance; when combined, they can change a mediocre athlete into a high-achieving, successful athlete, with success determined by an improvement in performance (Satheeshkumar, 2019). Compared to a control group that did not engage in any of these three abilities, a combination of self-talk, imagery, and goal-setting was found to help improve the competitive performance of the athletes(Zakrajsek, 2017). This study aims to thoroughly examine the value of applying these abilities to an athlete attempting to increase athletic performance.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Many studies have been conducted on the importance of psychological well-being in focused performance and a higher chance of winning (Richard, 2006). As a result, motivated self-talk was discovered to boost self-confidence and minimise cognitive anxiety, which improved performance (Hatzigeorgiadis,2009). However, a less experienced or non-elite athlete may regard and perceive the anxiety experienced by athletes as negative and detrimental to their performance. While one athlete might use it as motivation to do better, another might experience fearful thoughts and behaviours that have the opposite effect and cause them to perform worse (Farouk, 2010). While most studies have demonstrated that positive self-talk can enhance performance for athletes, the results were inconclusive in athletes involved in training, making it a possible literature gap.

Imagery is the most exploited positive psychological intervention to enhance the performance of athletes. White and Hardy (1998) defined imagery as, ‘an experience that mimics real experience.’ Callow et al.(2006) examined two modes of imagery that could be used to enhance the performance of athletes-static imagery and dynamic imagery. Dynamic imaging makes an image look more realistic and may reveal details relevant to performance achievements, giving the athlete the most robust foundation for their sense of self-efficacy. Dynamic imagery is thought to play a significant role in the link between imagery and performance by fostering a more vivid mental image(Callow et al., 2006).
By assisting athletes in recreating the feelings associated with successful performance and so fostering self-belief and self-confidence, imagery can unquestionably enhance performance. However, current research does not address whether cognitive style, length of imagery rehearsal, or simultaneous usage of several images affect imagery’s ability to enhance performance (Martin et al., 1999).

Setting goals is another psychological strategy that has been shown to improve performance. Goal-setting is a notion of motivation that inspires athletes to work more effectively (Locke and Latham, 1985).
Athletes frequently use the S.M.A.R.T. goal-setting framework to maintain the motivating nature of each objective and boost performance. Each goal must meet the S.M.A.R.T. criteria of being specific enough to be measured, measurable in nature, hard but doable, relevant to the athlete, and time-bound (Botell et al., 2009).
Although both process goals and performance objectives enhanced performance compared to a control group, Kingston & Hardy (1997) showed that process goals were more effective at lowering anxiety than performance goals. As a result, both groups experienced identical increases in performance, which invites discussion on the effect anxiety may have on output. According to research, using a multiple-objective strategy can improve performance in both psychological and athletic domains (Cox, 2002).

Cabral and Crisfield (2003) define a pre-performance routine as “planning their success by focusing on controllable rather than uncontrollable conditions.” The most crucial aspect of pre-performance routines is that they constantly remain the same, regardless of the conditions, providing the athlete confidence (Foster et al., 2006). Nonetheless, Jackson (2003) examined pre-performance routines during the 1999 Rugby World Cup. He discovered a link between more prolonged attention levels, longer routines, and the perceived difficulty of the activity at the time. While Cox (2002) claims that the consistency of a routine has been verified by research, Jackson’s (2003) findings contradict this widely held view, and the idea that enhancing the consistency of a routine improves performance lacks solid empirical evidence (Jackson, 2003).

METHODOLOGY

An athlete was a top-level golf player approached for counselling. He had previously won several medals and was renowned in his club. However, four months ago, he was diagnosed with Golfer’s elbow. He was advised to rest till his symptoms subside. At the time of counselling, he had no symptoms but had lower self-esteem and doubted whether he would ever be able to resume the sport. While he had been undergoing physiological training, he needed psychological support. The intervention commenced with the needs assessment, which analysed his strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. He was very self-confident before this condition. Ever since he contracted Tennis elbow, he felt that he might be inferior to his competitors and may not have the calibre as before. However, no psychological intervention was done on him.

The PST intervention was employed, and he was instructed to indulge in positive self-talk. He was told to remind himself of his capabilities and accomplishments. He was also told that many athletes suffer from injuries during sports, and they did not stop practising their sport due to their injuries. It has been proposed that athletes with high competition anxiety exhibit increased muscle tension and distractibility under stressful settings, making them more prone to injury (Maddison & Prapavessis, 2005). Positive self-talk can be essential for performers to reinforce positive sentiments and thoughts, which reduces the effects of negative distractions. In contrast, motivated self-talk reduces performance anxiety and enhances self-confidence (Hatzigeorgiadis, 2009). Positive imagery has been demonstrated to increase self-confidence, and kinaesthetic imagery—imaging that focuses on the sensation of movement and the various forces or efforts put forth—has been shown to boost sports performance the most. It is most helpful if you have previously accomplished a comparable movement, as it is similar to viewing a replay of that episode, which makes you believe you can do it again (Röthlin, 2016).

Goals drive athletes to work harder to achieve them; however, a few elements are involved in goal formulation to improve self-confidence, with findings of short-term goals rather than long-term goals providing higher confidence in the athlete (Schunk, 2003).

To return to playing the sport he once loved, he must be psychologically and physiologically rehabilitated. Every year, nearly 3.5 million US children, ages 14 and under, are injured while participating in sports. While physical factors have been implicated in causing injuries, psychological factors can also contribute (Weinberg & Gould, 2006). Therefore, psychological interventions must be applied to rehabilitate the athlete. It was ensured that he was free of negative feelings so that he had the opportunities and the will to return to sport. When the athlete returns to this level of competition, he will need to continue his psychological and physical training practises to become a greater player than he was before the injury. The psychological therapies presented and examined in the academic research review part were critical for him as he strives to improve his game. Since he had not engaged in any psychological interventions or skills before his accident, the literature suggests that they will enhance and increase his overall physical performance, albeit in combination with his physical practice.

CONCLUSION

Analysing the role psychology plays in modern sports reveals that the realm of sport psychology is an ever-expanding corpus of research and application that many coaches, athletes, academics, and even athletes’ parents have engaged in to gain a competitive advantage. Previously a relatively recent phenomenon, every athlete looking for an advantage on the field of play has applied, practised, or at the very least read about or heard about the different psychological therapies that have been found to boost performance.
The psychological tools and strategies facilitate performance by providing the athlete with crucial psychological components that improve physical performance, such as confidence, motivation, and arousal rather than anxiety. Psychological therapies should never be employed as the sole means of training; they should always be used with some form of physical activity. The underlying idea is that psychological and emotional aspects that may be learnt and implemented in a competitive context might influence athletic performance.

The paper examines the various psychological interventions from the athletes’ point of view to gain a firsthand understanding of their mindset when implementing such interventions into a training programme and a perception of what psychological issues they face when dealing with an injury. It is challenging to recognise and comprehend the full impact of an injury on an athlete until you interact with that athlete; this is especially true for the psychological impacts rather than the physical effects. In this circumstance, it was vital to interact with him directly to comprehend the psychological anguish he was experiencing due to his injuries and to aid him psychologically in his rehabilitation.
As the sporting world is changing and the psychological side of sports is becoming increasingly essential, players use a variety of additional psychological interventions like positive psychology intervention to improve overall performance. However, earlier studies and current research show that the psychological abilities of self-talk, imagery, goal-setting, and pre-performance routines can all positively affect an athlete’s physical performance when understood and implemented effectively.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Within the first three months of returning to the sport, outline and master all psychological treatments and skills that can improve performance.
   All of the psychological interventions described above must be learned by the athlete. They now have a foundation of knowledge to begin this process, but because the field of sports psychology is constantly evolving, they must stay current and study what is relevant to them in the future. They must develop a strategy for learning all the essential material to increase their performance and swiftly return to sport.
2. Over the next year, implement and assess all psychological interventions learnt in the first three months.
   Now that the Golfer has identified and addressed the psychological treatments that will benefit them, it is time to put them into practice in their daily training and life. It is vital to evaluate the psychological therapies that they want to use in the future after they have applied them. This can be accomplished through counsellors, but he can also assess his improvement. To ensure no bias or errors occur, two evaluations must be used, one internally and one externally.

References

1. Röthlin, P., Birrer, D., Horvath, S. et al. Psychological skills training and a mindfulness-based intervention to enhance functional athletic performance: design of a randomised controlled trial using ambulatory assessment. B.M.C. Psychol 4, 39 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-016-0147-y
2. Maron, B. J., and Zipes, D. P. (2005). Introduction: eligibility recommendations for competitive athletes with cardiovascular abnormalities—general considerations. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 45, 1318–1321. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2005.02.006 Satheeshkumar, P. (2019). The efficacy of mental preparation on different sports performance in domestic level.
3. Zakrajsek, R. A., & Blanton, J. E. (2017). Evaluation of psychological interventions in sport and exercise settings. In Oxford research encyclopedia of psychology.
4. Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Zourbanos, N., Mpoumpaki, S., & Theodorakis, Y. (2009). Mechanisms underlying the self-talk–performance relationship: The effects of motivational self-talk on self-confidence and anxiety. Psychology of Sport and exercise, 10(1), 186-192.
5. Farouk, A. (2010). Impact of psychological rehabilitation program on self-confidence level and competition anxiety for soccer players of anterior cruciate ligament injury. World Journal of Sport Sciences, 3(S), 138–143.
6. White, A., & Hardy, L. (1998). An in-depth analysis of the uses of imagery by high-level slalom canoeists and artistic gymnasts. Sport Psychologist, 12, 387–403.
7. Callow, N., Roberts, R., & Fawkes, J. Z. (2006). Effects of dynamic and static imagery on vividness of imagery, skiing performance, and confidence. Journal of Imagery Research in Sport and Physical Activity, 1(1).
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